He must turn his own unconscious like a receptive organ towards the transmitting unconscious of the patient. He must adjust himself to the patient as a telephone receiver is adjusted to the transmitting microphone. Just as the receiver converts back into sound waves the electric oscillations in the telephone line which were set up by the sound waves, so the doctor’s unconscious is able, from the derivatives of the unconscious which are communicated to him, to reconstruct that unconscious, which has determined the patient’s free associations.
– Sigmund Freud, “Recommendations to Physicians Practising Psycho-Analysis”
After an impression of the night before, I wake up softened by a happy thought:: “X was adorable last night.” This is the memory of . . . what? Of what the Greeks called charis: “‘the sparkle of the eyes, the body’s luminous beauty, the radiance of the desirable being'”
– Roland Barthes, A Lover’s Discourse
Therefore, reflection is fundamental to everything psychological and artistic (…) The artistic recognition achieved within the medium of reflection is the task of art criticism.
– Walter Benjamin, “The Concept of Art Criticism in German Romanticism”
A.
If one wishes to speak of an aesthetic perception or experience of art as experienced by oneself, we will have to face boundless sublimity and ideal concepts. And these perceptions are most often considered as something lofty provoked by great works of visual art or the classics. But from the point of view of the depths of psychoanalysis, this is an unquestionably narrow-minded view. Even in the DJ-spaces, the clubs and party spaces that are considered the lowest and most vulgar in the realm of music (1), the artistic, i.e. the aesthetic, blazes its flame and and shines. The general principles of aesthetic experience are equally applicable everywhere. Therefore, beauty is experienced as immediate fun. It is clear that enjoying aesthetic sensations is the reason for visiting DJ spaces.
An Epistemological Preliminary Study
The object relation to an object shapes the structure, desires, attitudes, and experiences of the human psyche according to its noesis-noema correlation; in other words, a human being may be defined as an object-oriented being. Such is the most fundamental capacity of the activities of the mind and the desire. The psychoanalytic theory that best addresses this orientation is the theory of object relations. As M. Klein’s work shows, objects can be divided into internal objects and external objects. We must pay attention to the fact that this psychological term, object, corresponds to the word object in the grammatical sense that refers to the structure of a typical sentence, i.e., the structure of a proposition is the structure of object relations. The reason is, on one hand, because this is related to the orientational relation studied in older scholastic philosophy, and on the other, because it suggests that the form within her theory has a logical structure. (In fact, the word objectum refers to a formative or corporeal object and its antithesis, a qualitative or primal object, where the formative object refers to a substantial body and the qualitative object to an apparent quality.)(2) In Scholastic philosophy, the question of orientational relations starts from the premise that the structure of “a perception of ___” reveals the fundamental and essential feature of perception. Simply put, the object of cognition is a real thing with a particular way of being, a thing that is established as a “phenomenal being.” As such, philosophy starts from the premise that the structure “a perception of ____” reveals a fundamental and essential feature of perception, as does the question of orientational relations. This is because the basic premise is that if the object of perception must be in some way within the subject of perception, then it is perceived by the relationship between the subject and the object of perception that mediates perception, that is, by the subject of perception. Object relations theory is a special theory that solves two problems that this begets in scholastic philosophy: the two opposing problems of whether the object of cognition exists outside the mind or is a special kind of mental reality. The theory of object relations provides a clear solution through the concepts of internal and external objects. Following the previous statement that the syntactical relation is the same as the relation to the object, it is necessary to refer to Heidegger’s explanation for a moment. Traditional logic, and epistemology in a broader sense, holds that truth is a property of propositions. Truth as a feature of propositions is, in its simplest form, the connection of subject and predicate, S-P. Propositional truth exists either in the attribution of a predicate to a subject or in the commonality of two representations. In short, an object relation is a grammatical interaction in which the self has a subject-predicate relation with an internal or external object.” What we will be examining is the interaction between the DJ-space as the object and the crowd, as well as between the DJ controller and the DJs. And the exploration of such orientation derived from the perceived object will need to be done in a manner that intuits the very essence.
B.
What is primarily felt in the DJ-space, an external object, is an aesthetic perception or experience. Who makes this possible? The answer is the audience. The presence of an audience is a prerequisite for a DJ-space. Psychoanalyst Adrian Stokes writes in his article that aesthetic awareness is something “captured, held, integrated with ‘full cognizance of space'” by someone. (3) The response to a mix set playing in the background in a DJ-space, dancing in the space between people, and merging into the space can be dreamlike. Stokes sees the aesthetic response as “evoking and retaining the feeling of a dream.” Furthermore, according to Christopher Bollas, “[t]he aesthetic moment is an experience of ‘rapt, intransitive attention’ (quoted in Krieger, 1976, p. 11), a spell which holds self and Other in symmetry and solitude. Time seems suspended. As the aesthetic moment constitutes a deep rapport between subject and object, it provides the person with a generative illusion of fitting with an object.”(4) In this sense, the experience of aesthetic appreciation in a DJ-space is a ritual of rapt attention to the DJ’s music and a ritual of the dance space, the other, and the dream. In that ritual, we can feel pleasure, we can feel security, and we can feel joy. Or we even forget ourselves. But the participants, who are consumers who cultivate their own tastes to enjoy the mood of pleasure, are as much of sophisticated critics as the people who frequent the white cube. If they don’t like the song, the dancing will come to a screeching halt. This becomes even clearer when we consider the fact that in psychoanalysis, the principle of aesthetic appreciation for the aesthetic critic is that the observer ceases to be a mere observer and becomes both a participant and an object of observation. “This drawing-in aspect of aesthetic experience is described by Adrian Stokes in The Invitation in Art, as ‘a vehemence beyond an identification with realised structure, that largely lies … in a work’s suggestion of a process in train, of transcending stress, with which we may immerse ourselves’.” (5) If we listen to a DJ playing a series of songs, our mental structure is inevitably modified, either pleasantly or unpleasantly.
At the same time, Stokes writes that, under the spell of this enveloping incantation, the object’s otherness, and its representation of otherness, are the more poignantly captured, (6) just as the existence of music and the DJ is captured as an other by being photographed on a smartphone or smiling at the same time as instantly identifying with the self. Furthermore, the appreciator must “must revere the object’s inviolate world-of-its-own, yet at the same time allow its sculptured contours to melt and mingle with his own state of mind, together with the anxiety, excitement and confusion entailed,” which happens very naturally in a DJ-space.(7) It is through this merging of the external object of space with the internal self that audiences as participatory critics achieve aesthetic perception in a DJ-space. However, “hhe problem is how to know that which, however concrete, is ineffable” – the way we discover ourselves and at the same time respond to the DJ’s invitation to play. Of course, this becomes known intuitively and experientially (8) through the beat. EDM(9) essentially is just beats. In other words, a DJ-space is a place where mixes that are solely for fun devoid of any meaning (although there may be a goal or an agenda) are played, where hallucination and insanity are praised. It is an in-between zone where everyday social values are reversed and experimentation is allowed. To put it differently, transference and identification are unfortunately inevitable. Through this identification, something from the other enters the subject and forms a “they” that resembles it. Among the things that are internalized in DJ-space, the “good” internal objects would primarily produce love and gratitude.(10) Of course, when the identification is with “bad” internal objects, the emotions produced will be suicidal, nihilistic, and depressed. There exists the possibility of an ambivalent coexistence of hell and heaven.
C.
According to several authoritative EDM experts, the pleasure of dance music is primarily found in the “beat”. The pleasure from its structure which is based on a continuous pulse, a loop. EDM researcher Ben Neill argues that this relies on tempo changes, divisions, sound manipulation, complex quantization, etc., and the most important and interesting feature that drives the audience to dance feverishly in the experience of the music is the regularity of the beat. (11) When the beat pulses through my heart, when it stirs my guts, I am directly placed in the most heightened state of ecstasy. The music plays with my body. When we acquire an aesthetic sensation while standing in front of the DJ, we respond by cheering. This alone shows that we feel beauty in the space, and that we feel the aesthetic experience through our hearing and our body even more so than in an art gallery. DJing is more immediately entertaining than any performance. Similarly, Thornton explains that “this process makes the audience think that what they’re seeing and hearing is a live performance.” That is how “DJs create a living subculture through music.” In the end, “the special pleasure of the DJ-space is this one-of-a-kind experience that the DJ’s live performance creates, an experience that can only be had in that space, and it is the communal atmosphere that the DJ and the crowd create in that in-between space that makes club culture authentic.” (12) “Club music is a long sonic tapestry made up of piles of tracks seamlessly stitched together.” (13) “As such, EDM in the DJ-space is not heard as individual tracks, but is experienced as a flow of tracks.” EDM, like a cruel universe, wants and provides an intense experience with no purpose or message to convey. It is a type of queer popular music and also queer experimental music in that it is more about timbral composition than melodic or harmonic development and is oriented towards infinite repetition and imitation. The DJ’s world where artfully reproduced recordings are stolen is indeed a simulation, and it is also the most bricolage-like of all.(13) Then can one truly claim one’s identity here? As such, DJs are not just musicians, they are expert collectors, and the recordings they dig up become the material for their performances, which in turn constitute a holistic experience with the audience, as they interact with them and bring their energy to a climactic tension. Furthermore, according to Thornton, “their ultimate goal should be ‘total ecstasy.’”(14) Thus, the music we play and dance to is a bodily manifestation of controlled processes of madness. Or, as Artur Schopenhauer writes in The World as Will and Representation, the acquisition of a purely cognitive subjectivity in which “happiness and unhappiness has vanished” or as Spinoza writes in the Etica, “the mind is eternal insofar as it apprehends things from the point of view of eternity”. This cannot be experienced unless one is allowed to be led into the realm of pure madness where the self is completely emptied.
Such experience is a perfect aesthetic experience. It is a “fundamentally non-representational knowledge of being embraced by the aesthetic object,” and “once experienced, these occasions can sponsor a profound sense of gratitude in the subject that may lead him into a lifelong quest for some other reacquaintance with the aesthetic object.”(15) This may be the desire of the person who returns to the DJ-space to feel this beauty and gratitude. Therefore, we can define the ‘moment of unity’ in the DJ-space as a state where judgment is suspended and there is only the pleasure principle, free from the reality principle. It is the awakening of unconscious body movements and desires. However, not only the DJ-space, but also the DJ uses dreamlike techniques. The techniques of making something out of something are similar to the unconscious techniques of dream-work that create dreams. Therefore, we can say that DJs are agents of the dream. Or, we dream wild and totally unknown dreams all day and all night. And we communicate through such music. It can be said the next morning: “that place is… the lost thoughts are a special state of mind where we saw something and went somewhere.”
D.
From a modern perspective, Freud’s dream theory has undergone many modifications. However, might gain much theoretically from Freud’s formalization of dreams. For him, the function of dream is carried out by a process similar to hallucination, and the effectiveness of dream in keeping the dreamer asleep is based on the process of wish fulfillment through hallucination.(16) According to him, “dreaming is an intermediate state between sleep and wakefulness”(17) and “dreaming is the removal of psychological stimuli that interfere with sleep by means of hallucinatory satisfaction”(18). Furthermore, there are latent dreams (dreams that actually have meaning) and manifest dreams (dreams that have undergone a process of transformation), and according to Freud, the conversion of latent dreams into manifest dreams is called dream-work.(19) In other words, “dream-work, which consists of compression, transposition, and symbolic representation, is the coding or encoding of the emotional residue of the day,” and dreams serve the needs of the pleasure principle, which is “the organizing principle behind the primary process of structuring the edifice of dreams.”(20) Freud also saw the withdrawal and re-focusing of the libido as having a very fluid character, meaning that it occurs not only in schizophrenics but also in normal people. To fall asleep, for example, is to withdraw interest from the external world and invest it in an internal dream world. (20) This kind of dreaming is at once the most powerful psychedelic satisfaction experienced by the audience and narcissism.
The first outcome of this dream work is compression, which means that “manifest dreams have less content than latent dreams, i.e., they can be seen as a sort of summarized translation of latent dreams.” Condensation occurs when (1) some potential element is omitted entirely, (2) only a certain fragment of a complex of potential dreams is carried over into the manifest dream, or (3) several potential elements that have something in common are united in the manifest dream and dissolve into a single element.(21) Freud also says, “this creative reverie does not invent anything. It is merely the synthesis of strange elements into one.”(21) Wouldn’t this be the same as literally condensing music by changing the BPM, or moving keys such as low, mid, and high to carve out, amplify, or distort notes when mixing music from two decks of records with precise cues? It is literally a “transformation”. According to Freud, “the dream-work transforms these thoughts into other forms, and in this process of transferring them into other languages and letters, what is difficult to understand is that it uses the means of fusion and combination.” “The way dream-work deals with contradictions in potential dreams is that the coincidences in the potential material allow for contradictions in the outward dream, and some elements of the outward dream either refer to themselves or to contradictions about themselves, or both at the same time.” “The fact that no representation of negativity is found in dreams, at least nothing overtly negative, is therefore related to this very fact.”(22) As such, in the experience of DJing, no negativity is found if one is able to enjoy between two pieces of music. Furthermore, according to Freud, the processes that take place in the unconscious have no negation, no doubt, and no certainty in this unconscious organization; they are (23) “timeless,” meaning that they do not occur in a temporal sequence, do not change over time, and have no relationship to time. “Such “freedom from mutual conflict and possible conflict,” “timelessness,” and “substitution of mental reality for external reality” are the main characteristics of mental processes belonging to the unconscious organization,” (24) This is what is experienced in the DJ-space by the audience who can dance while at once immersed in themselves and oblivious of themselves.
Freud, of course, sees dreams as something to be interpreted or as a source of neurotic illnesses, but that is irrelevant in DJing. Whether to interpret these dreams or not is entirely up to a decision after the party is over. Through the DJ-ing by the DJ who conceived (dream-worked) the potential dream (idea), everyone only dreams explicit dreams and then disbands. Therefore, to the DJ, his or her conceived dream is always inevitably an unsatisfactory dream. What remains precise is the accidental act of enjoying together.
E.
It’s clear that a regressive ego state, like that in a dream, is what happens to people in DJ-space. According to Arlow, “Unconscious daydreaming is a constant feature of mental life. It is an ever-present accompaniment of conscious experience. What is consciously apperceived and experienced is the result of the interaction between the data of experience and unconscious fantasying as mediated by various functions of the ego. (1969b p23.)”(25) Psychoanalyst Wilfred Bion also argues that we dream all the time, day and night.(26) In his revision of Freud’s essay “Pleasure-Principle and the Reality-Principle,” Bion merges primary and secondary processes into what he calls the alpha-function. This alpha-function uses the pleasure and reality principles and the individual’s aesthetic faculties to create the pictograms (alpha-elements) of dreams.(27) He extends Freud’s idea of the transfer of concrete-sensory experience to abstract/image representations in two ways.(28) If beta-elements are concrete and sensory experiences, they can only be represented through the alpha-function. Beta-elements are object-representations and must become alpha-elements if they are to become language-representations.(29) (From Freud: “Rather, the distinction should be made by saying that a conscious representation includes both the representation of an object and the language-representation belonging to that object, whereas an unconscious representation includes only the object-representation.”)(30) “The unconscious system of one person can respond to the unconscious system of another, and this is possible because the individual under its influence transforms the experience, originally unconscious, into a pre-conscious experience.”(31) This tells us what DJing tries to convey. It is a vision, an audiovisual, dream-daydream-like experience, which occurs interactively between the DJ,machine, and the audience in the DJ-space, based on concrete sensations.
F.
“In The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud realized that if he recorded his dreams, broke them down into individual elements, and allowed free association for each element, certain key themes would emerge over and over again. What emerged was a mass of concrete problems, memories, and wishes.”(32) Based on this, we may be able to analyze that there are recurring themes in DJ-space culture. It’s no secret that the world can turn upside-down like an hourglass depending on your mood. A club, where reincarnation of the self is attempted, is never a space that is always emotionally safe. What is this subliminal dream? What can be found in the imago in the external dream created by the DJ? I think the answer is: giant nihilism and melancholy.
Under the dynamics of bipolar disorder, the club thrives. The classic psychoanalytic story is that the introjection described above simultaneously causes depression related to separations. Both Winnicott and Klein viewed manic defense as a type of mental action based on denial, characterized by a flight to an inner reality that is characterized by rapidly replaced fantasies and acting out.(33) Clinically, it expresses a manic state of denial of aggression or destructiveness toward others, a manic state where sense of euphoria is felt regardless of one’s actual life situations and others are idealized.(34) Freud also described the sadistic side of the superego as a symbol of the pure product of the death instinct. In this context, Klein was eager to point out that the appearance of manic defense is common.(35) Klein explicitly theorizes parapsychologically about the interdependent relationship between paranoia, depression, and manic states.(36) According to Freud, the ego and superego fuse, and the individual becomes capable of enjoying what is forbidden unencumbered by any self-condemnation, in the state of ecstasy and self-satisfaction.(37) Furthermore, in mania, introjective projection is very unrestrained and can calm all forms of anxiety (persecutory and depressive anxiety) that are connected to introjection and projection. (38) And the most common means of overcoming the whole scenario in the depressive position is by deploying a manic defense,(39) or, as Winnicott puts it, taking a “notorious vacation from depression.”(40) It’s like giving ourselves a temporary oral sedative. In mania, however, introjective projection is so unrestrained that it can suppress all forms of anxiety associated with introjection and projection. Klein considered manic defense to be the only mechanism that influences all of paranoia-schizophrenia, depressive position, and depressive state.(41) The problem is starkly obvious. An experience in a club can be either manic or depressive. Or the experience of having to deal with the aftermath of a manic episode inevitably leads to depression.
As such, in conventional psychoanalysis, mania is explained as a defense mechanism. In a state of mind where the sadistic superego reigns supreme with its death drive, we may fall into a nihilism that can only be diagnosed as a pathological culture where everything repeats itself forever in a desperate attempt to stop it. What is the club’s command? It is “enjoy!” What should we enjoy? We should enjoy life, beyond music. Therefore, this dream reflects the melancholy of the era. In order not to cry, we have to laugh a little. The DJ-space is a dream and an allegory of the melancholy of the era. However, we must keep in mind that the DJ controller is a musical instrument that helps conduct the orchestra. Only for it to be repeated.
G.
We see in the spinning DJ deck that the one-time life is repeated, that even death is a new possibility. This is a powerful allegory and a new possibility, an experiment, a form that manic depression reveals. Everything revolves around the record, moves to the beat, and for this ‘moment’….., living is painful. To live is something deserving of all the negative adjectives one can think of – despicable, degrading, shameful, unjust, etc. It’s even more unjust, however, when there isn’t even an opportunity to affirm it. Because of these qualities, the experience in DJ-space cannot be overcome except by the experience or will of eternal recurrence, unless we can identify with the record deck, a machine that attempts to live as long as it is turned on, with the willpower of a living organism itself. Even humans are just materials for this art. To affirm life is difficult, because it is in a state that is so difficult to overcome. So what if it repeats itself? So what? What is willpower? The will to do something is the realm of insanity. The formidable thrill that comes from it is closer to a feeling that one might get torn apart. It is this thrill that makes us dance.
I think of the experience of DJing and the eternal recurrence as a coexistence or irony of two contradictory emotions – wanting the music to end and at the same time wanting the track to eternally repeat anew, etc. Who are we fervently searching for in the midst of meaninglessness? We know – or, we experience the extremes of depressive states. When we feel the futility of all this motion, we grab a drink and sprawl out on the couch, we stand still, or we merely light a cigarette. Praying for all of these thoughts to fly away. However, I also “remember” how in recent years I’ve marveled at the rapidly ending world. Believe it or not, survival is an overwhelming experience. When I was in the throes of suicidal ideation and unable to seek help, the advice to live again and affirm this life was bullshit. However, rather than the empty question of what it means to be alive, perhaps the more useful question is “who is it that is alive?” We will have no choice but to aesthetically affirm and justify the state of living through manic delight – because the one who is alive is I, who is fine to be in that DJ space. In this place of experimentation where the transformation of the self takes place, we become the same self painting another self. Then what is revealed in this allegory where this mind, this world, and everything else repeats forever? Our unconscious, our brutality, what is danceable and what is not, our impulses, our actions, unknowns and contingencies. We know what it is to fail positively. A DJ making a mistake is no big deal. We applaud. There always are accidents. What does all this mean? We always say at the end of a DJ set: One more time! One more time! We always say yes to the question: do you want this to repeat once more, or countlessly more? (42) We may never know our future, but as long as there are DJs and DJ-spaces, we will always find an escape to experiment once again with how to live this life. In this space that is an allegory of the world.
Finally, Nietzsche says,
Fire and combustion, that should be our life.”-Friedrich Nietzsche, The Complete Works, Vol. 16
*I would like to express gratitude to all the DJs who allowed me to dance, and @C_bong_sae for teaching me how to DJ. I would also like to thank ‘420’@onezero420 and ‘Ghost 2’ for making important points via email, and to Alice for translating this piece.
Endnotes
(1) “Disco became an object of loathing due to a number of factors. From a musical perspective, the studio overdubbing techniques and infinitely repetitive musical patterns seemed musically simplistic, and this was seen as vulgar in the eyes of traditional popular music criticism, which relied on instrumental technique and vocal quality as criteria for evaluation. The very fact that the music was created primarily for dancing was considered to undermine its value. In particular, the eroticism and hedonism implicit in disco music (the sexualized language of the lyrics, moaning, etc.) were criticized by conservative critical circles. Socially, homophobia against the gay community and racism against black music were also key drivers of criticism on disco.” “Cultural Interpretations of the Meaning of Pleasure in Electronic Dance Music (EDM): Focusing on Thornton’s Study of British Rave and Club Culture in the 1980s and 1990s,” pp.180-181. “There was even an event called Disco Demolition Night on July 12, 1979.” BACK TO THE HOUSE: How House and Techno Shook Up the Mainstream, 1977-2009, p. 25
(2) Naver Encyclopedia: <All About Catholicism> 中
(3) Apprehension of Beauty
(4) The Shadow of the Object
(5) Apprehension of Beauty
(6) Ibid.
(7) Ibid.
(8) Ibid.
(9) “Cultural Interpretations of the Meaning of Pleasure in Electronic Dance Music (EDM): Focusing on Thornton’s Study of British Rave and Club Culture in the 1980s and 1990s.” “EDM” stands for Electronic Dance Music and refers to electronic music in general, as played at clubs and DJ-led dance parties, rather than to a specific genre. We follow that usage here. Of course, there’s no denying that there are many different genres of DJing.
(10) Clinical Klein
(11) “Cultural Interpretations of the Meaning of Pleasure in Electronic Dance Music (EDM): Focusing on Thornton’s Study of British Rave and Club Culture in the 1980s and 1990s,” pp.184-185
(12) Ibid, pp.193-194
(13) Ibid, p. 185
(14) Ibid, p. 190
(15) The Shadow of the Object
(16) A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis
(17) Ibid.
(18) Ibid.
(19) Ibid.
(20) Clinical Klein
(21) A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis
(22) Ibid.
(23) Beyond the Pleasure Principle
(24) Ibid.
(25) Intersubjective Processes and the Unconscious: An Integration of Freudian, Kleinian and Bionian Perspectives
(26) Ibid.
(27) Ibid.
(28) Ibid.
(29) Ibid.
(30) Beyond the Pleasure Principle
(31) Intersubjective Processes and the Unconscious: An Integration of Freudian, Kleinian and Bionian Perspectives
(32) Clinical Klein
(33) Object Relations in Depression: A Return to Theory
(34) Psychodynamic Psychiatry in Clinical Practice
(35) Object Relations in Depression: A Return to Theory
(36) Ibid.
(37) Ibid.
(38) Ibid.
(39) Ibid.
(40) Ibid.
(41) Ibid.
(42) Nietzsche, Eternal Recurrence and the Philosophy of Difference
References
Daehwa Lee, 2015, BACK TO THE HOUSE: How House and Techno Shook Up the Mainstream in 1977-2009, M Square Korea.
Donald Meltzer, Meg Harris Williams, The Apprehension of Beauty: The Role of Aesthetic Conflict in Development, Art and Violence, Karnac, 2019.
Christopher Bollas, The Shadow of the Object: Psychoanalysis of Unthought Known, Korea Institute of Psychotherapy, Routledge, 2010.
Lawrence J. Brown, Intersubjective Processes and the Unconscious: An Integration of Freudian, Kleinian and Bionian Perspectives, The New Library of Psychoanalysis, 2011.
R.D. Hinshelwood, Clinical Klein: from Theory to Practice, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Sigmund Freud, A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis, 1917.
Sigmund Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 1920.
Trevor Lubbe, Object Relations in Depression: A Return to Theory, Routledge, 2011.
Glen O. Gabbard, Psychodynamic Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 2014.
Eun-Young Jin, Nietzsche, Eternal Recurrence and the Philosophy of Difference, Green Bee, 2007.
Soowan Lee (2022), “Cultural Interpretations of the Meaning of Pleasure in Electronic Dance Music (EDM): Focusing on Thornton’s Study of British Rave and Club Culture in the 1980s and 1990s,” Music Papers, Vol. 48, pp.177-209
Internet resources
Naver Encyclopedia: All about Catholicism – “Objectum formale, materiale” :https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?docId=2367360&cid=69168&categoryId=51340
Transhcandance
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